Cultural Influences on Narrative Structures in Popular Cinemas

On my very first viewing of the film Mulholland Drive (2001) I experienced an acute sense of discomfort, akin to that I had felt, when I had seen films like Run Lola Run (1998), Memento (2000), Amores Perros (2000) and more recently 21 Grams (2003) and Babel (2006). All uniquely brilliant films in their own right, the one factor that runs common through them is a deviation from the standard form of feature filmmaking –or the classical narrative structure as it is referred to. Multiple viewings and a couple of classes on film theory later, I understood that my discomfort arose from a sense of trying to fit that which I could not understand within the compartmental confines of that which I am accustomed to. In other words, a restructuring of the narrative paradigm I was used to viewing Hollywood films which created a distinctive ‘break’ in the viewing experience for me. Narrative analysis¹ is concerned with this very observation; it studies the extent to which the things that we see in a film make sense. A film’s narrative structure is constructed around the twin elements of story (or content) and plot and is the filmmaker’s endeavor to present his creative vision to his audience.

When cinema was first introduced in the world, it was a unique new way for popular entertainment; such was the mesmeric effect of moving image on a large screen that neither story nor plot was needed to captivate audiences². However with time and cultural changes, a narrative style emerged in Hollywood productions and soon got ingrained in its audiences. Classically speaking, most Hollywood films have been based on what’s popularly referred to as the three-act structure featuring a setup, conflict and resolution. D.W. Griffith’s "The Birth of a Nation" (1915) was a landmark American film, credited with paving the path for feature films by setting a benchmark for narrative conventions.

Early cinema came about as an extension of an ancient visual tradition that included, but was not limited to, art and architecture. Hence, while literature and theatre were the influencers of early American cinema, the critically acclaimed Iranian cinema was strongly influenced by architecture and a rich poetic tradition that dates back to the time when it was still called Persia³. Most national cinemas owe an allegiance to literal and theatrical forms as were prevalent in the country of their origin. In India, the two great epics The Mahabharata and The Ramayana found popular expression through the theatre forms known as Ram Leela and Raas Leela, the impact of which can be seen even in contemporary cinema. Hence, elements of drama, action, tragedy and comedy can be found in almost any mainstream feature and the fight of good over evil remains the mainstay of commercial filmmaking to this day. The first Indian film to feature sound, titled Alam Ara (1931) was a direct adaptation of a Parsi play. Similarly in China, after the initial avalanche of foreign films, local theatrical traditions became the influencers for local filmmaking.

 

The first Indian film to feature sound, titled Alam Ara (1931) was a direct adaptation of a Parsi play

Since theatre itself derives from social customs, rituals and beliefs, cinema carries forth the tradition of portraying the same in newly creative forms. The first Chinese feature film Nanfu Nanqi (The Difficult Couple)⁴, made in 1913, not only featured theatre actors but also carried forth the theatrical custom of the time which forbade women from appearing with men on the same stage and hence, all roles were played by men in the film. The film was a social satire, based on the age-old system of arranged marriage in China. Social practices and mores cast their influence on cinematic narrative structures in more ways than one. In India, a country where the sex ratio has always tended to tilt in favor of males, the action film remains a perennial favorite at the box office, favored by the young Indian male –the most consistent figure in the movie going audience. Such films tend to feature a standard narrative with a hero who overcomes all odds to achieve his goals, with a romantic sub plot thrown in for good measure.

Another parameter of how narrative structures in popular cinemas evolve is the viewing practices that have prevailed in the country over the years. In India, for example, cinema is not just a means of entertainment, it is a way of living for scores of Indians who see their dormant dreams come true in the celluloid creations of their country’s filmmakers. Cinema and cricket are widely acknowledged as the two mainstays of the country’s cultural makeup and most, if not all Indians, possess an unwavering enthusiasm for either or both. Watching a movie is a popular family activity; the three hour long format (almost double that of most western productions), including a 15-minute interval provides the perfect option to escape the monotony of everyday life. A look at any major theater during a film interval on a weekend will reveal groups of people eating, laughing and often enthusiastically critiquing the first part of the movie they have just watched.

A similar observation of viewing practices in Iran reveals some interesting insights about the proliferation of cinematic genres in accordance with cultural changes. As recently as 2006, a study of film going audiences in the country revealed romantic comedies to be the most popular type of cinema, understandable when viewed against the cultural context of a society fed up with war and politics⁵. Famous names such as Abbas Kiorastami and Jafar Panahi also found waning audiences for their ‘realist’ films. Here was an audience clearly asking to be entertained so that going to the cinema would mean an escape from the harsh reality of their daily lives. One of the foremost women directors in Iran, Tahmineh Milani, known for making serious films highlighting women’s concerns in the country struck box office gold when she made the romantic comedy titled Atash Basar (Ceasefire) in 2006. It was one of the top grossing films in Iran that summer.

Political changes have also typically tended to impact narrative techniques in cinema as can be demonstrated by a look at the cinemas of Iran, Italy (early years) and China amongst others. Because of severe restrictions under Ayatollah Khomeini’s regime, Iranian cinema was not overtly wedded to a conventional narrative structure of the kind exemplified by the west. Instead, their films would tend to concentrate more on the importance of a single moment or process. The heavy censorship that all films were subject to ensured a liberal use of symbolism in films and also made filmmakers veer towards topics like social issues, religion, community building etc. This was vastly reminiscent of early Italian cinema in the post-fascist, post-WWII era when a fresh crop of Italian directors (Rossellini, De Sica and Visconti) decided to focus on the glaring social problems that Italy was facing, making films on social, economic and political themes that, in the earlier fascist era, would have been simply unthinkable⁶. The Italian movement of depicting reality on film by portraying ‘real’ issues and shooting on location to lend a feel of authenticity was termed as Neorealism (the new realism)⁷. The distinct effort was to avoid standard dramatic narratives of the kind popularized by Hollywood with the clichéd “happy ending” at all costs. Here was a bunch of filmmakers who wanted the world to see life in Italy in its darkest hues, devoid of any frills or extravagance.  Vittorio De Sica’s The Bicycle Thief⁸ (1948) best exemplifies this neorealist tradition of portraying the struggles of the common man. A viewing of this immensely moving saga of the common man’s struggle to survive brought back the haunting imagery of the Indian classic, Do Bigha Zameen (Two Acres of Land,1953), yet another brilliant portrayal of the stark circumstances which poverty renders its victims to. Thus, in three very different parts of the world, at different times a style of filmmaking converged as a result of cultural events that were similar in nature.

 

Another form of political influence on cinema has to do with governmental control exercised in the form of censorship. Formed for the purpose of ensuring that popular films adhere to the prevailing standards of morality and social responsibility, censor boards in many countries have often curtailed the release of films that were potentially threatening in a political or social context as is exemplified both by the cinema of Iran and Italy. In Iran, with the oppressive restrictions imposed upon everyday life by Khomeini on his return from exile, the reliance upon poetic imagery and symbolism became all the more necessary in order to adhere to the strict censorship rules governing cinema at the time. Filmmakers had to resort to innovatively creative ways with which to portray heterosexual relations in films.

In India, where ironically Independence from British rule brought about greater film censorship than ever before. Censorship is also attributed to the introduction and popularity of songs in commercial filmmaking. The appearance of songs as a narrative construct in Indian cinema dates back to the emergence of popular theatre and the widespread tradition of singing and dancing that existed throughout the country in diverse forms, the Natyashastra being the most influential amongst them . Under British colonialism, which is when the censorship code was instituted⁹, song and dance sequences were, strangely enough, not subject to the same forms of state control and were considered as autonomous blocks. This allowed filmmakers to situate their expressions of romantic fantasies, sensual thrills and heightened emotional drama in a song and get away without the need to explain it at any level. Today, in an effort to break clutter, film songs have additionally become a unique promotional vehicle for attracting audiences to popular films, as many filmmakers develop elaborate music videos, often featuring singing celebrities from around the world and place them while the end credits roll, thereby adding another layer to the existing narrative structure. Thus, what is still largely considered a narrative digression in the west can be easily explained in an Indian context by highlighting the cultural influences behind it.

A further analysis of other national cinemas would serve to reiterate the impact of various cultural elements on filmmaking, both in content and process. Where the conventions of present day narrative structures have evolved over time in accordance with cultural changes, another outcome of the latter is the emergence and development of alternative forms of cinematic narratives that exist to challenge these very conventions. Counter Cinema, Experimental Cinema, Parallel Cinema are some of the names that define genres of filmmaking that defy conventional narrative structures as have been exemplified by the popular cinemas of the world. The very existence of these movements are even stronger proof of the deep roots that cinema has in culture. For it is the advent of technology, the availability of new forms of funding and the evolution of cinema in general that constantly inspires filmmakers to delve into the unknown and create products not just aimed to entertain, but more importantly to become the new cultural symbols of the present day era.

Citations :

1. Nelmes, Jill. An Introduction to Film Studies. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 1999.
   
   
2. Butler, Jeremy G. Television: Critical Methods and Applications. 3rd ed. London: Routledge, 2007.
   
   
3. Manzoor, Sarfraz. “The Beautiful and the Hidden”. http://25by4.channel4.com/chapter_16/article_6  (accessed on January 28, 2009)
   
   
4. .http://www.chinesemirror.com/index/2007/03/chinas_first_fe.html (accessed on Feb 1, 2009)
   
   
5. http://www.redorbit.com/news/entertainment/617179/iran_cinema_booms_as_people_crave_romantic_comedy/index.html  (accessed on Feb 4, 2009)
   
   
6. http://www.filmreference.com/encyclopedia/Independent-Film-Road-Movies/Neorealism-HISTORICAL-ORIGINS- OF-ITALIAN-NEOREALISM.html
   
   
7. Ratner, Megan. “Italian Neorealism”.http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/neorealism1.jsp
   
   
8. Nucho, Joanne. “Open Cities: Joanne Nucho on The Bicycle Thief and its neorealist heirs in Tehran”.Reverse Shot (Autumn, 2005). http://www.reverseshot.com/legacy/autumn05/symposium/bicyclethief.html (accessed on January 31, 2009) Gopinath, Gayatri. Impossible Desires: Queer Diasporas and South Asian Public Cultures. Durham, London: Duke University Press, 2005.

Suggested Readings :

- Booth, Gregory D. “Traditional Content and Narrative Structure in the Hindi Commercial Cinema”. Asian Folklore Studies 54  (1995): 169-190.

- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation

- Bordwell, David, Janet Staiger, Kristin Thompson. The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to1960. London: Routledge, 1988.

- Armes, Roy.Third World Film Making and the West. London: University of California Press, 1987.